observational techniques and design

False. Observers *cannot *infer motive, intention, feeling or thought from an observation. Observers can only investigate observable behaviours, i.e., what they can see.

A naturalistic observation is one in which the researcher observes and records behaviours in a natural setting, with no control of variables.

True. Naturalistic observations are used when it would be inappropriate or unfeasible to run an experiment to investigate the topic.

c. Participants are generally unaware that they are being observed in a naturalistic observation, which means that they will not succumb to the Hawthorne effect. This happens when participants' behaviour changes as a result of being observed, which lowers validity.

Naturalistic observations cannot be replicated which reduces the method's reliability as no variables are controlled.

A controlled observation is one in which the researcher controls extraneous variables leading to a replicable procedure.

c. Rutter's Romanian orphans study does not use a controlled observation.

True. Researchers can be more confident of a cause-effect relationship with a controlled observation. E.g., in Bandura's study, only the children who had observed the aggressive model performed imitative acts on the Bobo doll.

b. The use of controlled conditions and artificial tasks means that controlled observations are low in ecological validity.

d. Participants in lab conditions is not a feature of a covert observation. Covert observations are more likely to occur with naturalistic observations as the researcher is keen to preserve the natural and unforced quality of the behaviour.

True. As the researcher is hidden from the participants in a covert observation, the behaviour being observed is more likely to be real and uncontrived.

a. Covert observations lack ethical validity because participants cannot give informed consent to take part in the study. Other ethical considerations are also compromised, e.g., right to withdraw, debriefing, etc.

In an overt observation participants are aware that they are being observed.

b. Overt observations are more likely to be used as part of a controlled observation. This is because the researcher is keen to test the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

False. Overt observations do not violate ethical guidelines. This is because the researcher makes themself known to the participants, who are aware that they are being observed.

a. In an overt observation, participants are aware that they are being observed, which could give rise to participant reactivity. This is a type of demand characteristic that involves participants responding too actively to the research process, i.e., trying too hard/not trying hard enough.

a. Participants are fully aware that they are being observed is not a feature of a participant observation.

b. Participant observations can yield high-quality, rich and insightful qualitative data. This increases the validity of the study, as access to real thoughts, feelings, and conversations is possible.

Being part of a participant observation could mean that the researcher loses their objectivity, which would damage the validity of the findings.

A non-participant observation is one in which the researcher stays separate and apart from the group they are observing.

False. In a non-participant observation, the researcher can keep an objective distance from what is being observed. This means that they are unlikely to become biased or subjective in their recording of behaviour.

c. A non-participant observation may be short on detail and insight, which means that it may lack explanatory power.

a. A structured observation may be chosen by a researcher when observing large samples in busy environments. This in done to create some sense of order so that behaviours are easy to identify.

b. Feeling happy/sad would not be suitable to include in a structured observation. This is because feelings can only be inferred, not directly observed.

True. Using predetermined categories means that the researcher is not likely to become distracted or unfocused when conducting a structured observation. This ensures that what is being observed is relevant to the research aim

Quantitative data is collected in a structured observation, a limitation of which is a lack of explanatory power.

c. An unstructured observation may be chosen by a researcher when observing small samples in intimate environments. This is because interpersonal interaction is the focus of the observation.

True. The emphasis in unstructured observations is on gathering qualitative data. They will generally not use predetermined behavioural categories, but instead they simply 'go with the flow' of the observation session.

Unstructured observations are high in ecological validity as the data is likely to be highly subjective and personal.

c. Unstructured observations may lack objectivity which means that the findings would be unreliable.

Behavioural categories are predetermined identifiable, specific behaviours to be measured during one observation session.

b. Daydreaming would not be used as a behavioural category during an observation. This is because the behaviour cannot be clearly observed and is open to interpretation.

A behaviour checklist is used to record or tally how often a behaviour occurs according to the behavioural categories observed.

c. If more than one observer agrees on the frequency of behavioural categories observed, this means that the research has good inter-observer reliability.

True. Behavioural categories may limit the scope of the observation. If one or more behaviours are not present in the behavioural checklist, then this means that the research does not represent what occurred during the session.

b. The two types of sampling used with observations are time sampling and event sampling.

With event sampling, the researcher records every time a behaviour from the behaviour checklist occurs, i.e., it measures the frequency of each behaviour.

With time sampling the researcher records all behaviours during a set time frame, at a set point. E.g., They record their observations for 20 seconds at a time every 15 minutes over a 2-hour observation schedule.

Time sampling allows the researcher flexibility to record any behaviours which may be relevant to the research.

a. Time sampling can miss any behaviours that occur outside of the set time frame, which limits the validity of the method.

False. Event sampling ensures that specific behaviours will not be missed or overlooked as they are set out in the behavioural categories.

If too many of the specific predetermined behaviours occur at once, it is difficult for event sampling to capture and record them all.